Against the backdrop of the ongoing US–Israel–Iran war, IMPACT-se examines how Iran’s national curriculum and school textbooks provide a lens into the threat the regime poses not only to the US, Israel, and the West, but also to regional actors across the Middle East and to its own civilian population.
The analysis shows how Iran’s education system advances the regime’s Khomeinist ideology, presenting nuclear dominance and the glorification of jihadist leaders as central to its national and religious identity.
By analyzing curriculum content and educational messaging, the article raises urgent questions about how state education furthers the regime’s intentions and what this may mean for the long-term stability of the Middle East.
https://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/flag-usa-iran-cracked-concrete-wall-background-concept-conflict-war-america-vs-iran-scaled.jpg17072560Dan Koskyhttps://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/logo-IMPACT_SE.pngDan Kosky2026-03-12 12:54:392026-04-14 13:24:41From Classroom to Conflict: Iranian Textbooks and the Ideological Roots of the US-Iran-Israel War
This report examines how Jordanian and Egyptian school textbooks address homosexuality and gender non-conformity. Through analysis of religious and language curricula, it shows how textbook narratives often reflect prevailing social and religious norms rather than state law, highlighting the role of education in transmitting societal attitudes.
This paper by Matan Perchikov illustrates how the UAE curricula mobilize both Arab cultural and local national heritage, as well as Islamic religious tradition, to reinforce messages of peace and tolerance. In particular, the paper highlights the importance of introducing Moral Education as a distinct subject and the pedagogic approach of Islamic Education textbooks. By drawing simultaneously on religious textual authority and national cultural identity, the curricula present tolerance not as imported or externally imposed standard, but as an organic and deeply rooted value in Emirati society.
According to UNESCO-derived standards of education, one critical element in assessing a curriculum is the presentation of peace and conflict resolution as a value in education. The overall aim of these standards is to create a more tolerant environment for students worldwide, where they learn the values of peace, respect, tolerance, and democratic principles. Conflict resolution is a value that fully embodies the broader principles of peace and tolerance promoted within the educational system, and thus provides an especially useful lens through which to assess sub-Saharan African curricula. Shaped by histories of colonialism and inter-ethnic conflict, Ethiopia, Nigeria, and South Sudan have each gone to considerable lengths to embed the values of peace and reconciliation in their educational frameworks. As a result, conflict resolution serves as a particularly meaningful perspective from which to evaluate how these curricula seek to cultivate tolerance and stability.
Across African curricula, the teaching of conflict resolution as a civic and moral value emerges as a recurring theme, particularly in Ethiopia, Nigeria, and South Sudan. In all three contexts, peace is presented as a practical skill set, integral to democratic participation, social stability, and national development. Textbooks consistently emphasize non-violent approaches such as dialogue, negotiation, reconciliation, and cooperation, while condemning violence as socially and economically destructive. Moreover, peace education is embedded across multiple disciplines, demonstrating a systematic curricular effort to cultivate peaceful coexistence as a shared societal value. This broad consensus suggests that, despite differing national trajectories and histories, these countries view conflict resolution as essential for nurturing responsible citizens and ensuring long-term stability.
Ethiopia:
Ethiopia is one of the world’s oldest Christian nations, with the religion enforced by the monarchy until the twentieth century. Ethiopia is home to over 80 ethnic groups, the largest being Oromo and Amhara, followed by Tigray, Somali, and Sidama. While this diversity is reflected in the country’s ethnic federal system, it has also fueled tensions. The country has a large Muslim presence, comprising roughly one third of the population, and has a long history of coexistence between the two religions, with some tension under more dogmatic national leaders. Ethiopia, one of the only African nations never colonized, was briefly occupied by Italy from 1936 to 1941 before Emperor Haile Selassie was restored. His modernization efforts and international leadership ended with his overthrow in 1974 by the Marxist Derg regime, whose rule brought repression, famine, and civil conflict until its fall in 1991. Due to its successful resistance and brief experience of occupation, Ethiopia became a symbol of independence and anti-colonial pride across Africa, later hosting the Organization of African Unity in Addis Ababa. Today, Ethiopia remains a major regional power but faces deep political and ethnic challenges.
Based on its history as an independent nation, fighting off bids for colonization, Ethiopian school textbooks consistently present conflict resolution as a central civic and democratic value, framing it as indispensable to both social stability and national cohesion. This is not simply discussed as a practical tool, but as a normative principle that students are encouraged to internalize. The Grade 11 History textbook, for example, draws on episodes of past conflict between Ethiopians, Christians, and Muslims to highlight the importance of resolving disputes peacefully, suggesting that such historical models provide lessons for contemporary society. Similarly, the Grade 12 Geography textbook situates conflict resolution within Ethiopia’s own cultural context, showcasing indigenous mechanisms that reduce inter-ethnic tensions through processes of reconciliation, forgiveness, and respect for elders. These examples emphasize that peaceful resolution is not only desirable, but deeply rooted in Ethiopian traditions, reinforcing its legitimacy as a civic value.
At the same time, the textbooks acknowledge the complexities of real-world conflict. The Grade 10 Citizenship textbook, for example, concedes that aggression may be necessary in the face of foreign invasion, before ultimately emphasizing the importance of peace. This nuance reflects the lasting imprint of Ethiopia’s historical encounters with colonial and external threats, demonstrating that while non-violence and reconciliation are taught as guiding principles, they are framed against a backdrop of national vulnerability. Overall, the curriculum deliberately cultivates conflict resolution as a moral and social value, embedding it within both Ethiopia’s historical memory and its indigenous traditions, and promoting it as a cornerstone of democratic citizenship.
Image: Citizenship, Grade 10, pp. 42, 98-99
Nigeria:
Before colonial rule, the territory of present-day Nigeria was home to diverse kingdoms and societies. In the late 19th century, Britain consolidated control of the country through conquest and treaties, formally creating the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria in 1914 by merging the northern and southern protectorates. This colonial unification bound together regions with very different histories, religions, and cultures, through indirect governance; they relied on Muslim emirs in the North and opened the South to Christian missionaries, introducing western education. As a result of this rule, the North became predominantly Muslim, while Christianity thrived in the South. Nigeria is also home to over 250 ethnic groups, the most dominant of which are the Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo, all of which have distinct ethnic identities tied to their respective places of dwelling. These regional divides and colonial legacy were inherited by Nigeria upon its independence in 1960, creating regional tensions evident today.
Given this legacy of colonialism, there is a strong emphasis on independence and anti-colonial narratives in Nigeria, combined with a desire to retain peace and stability. In a manner similar to Ethiopia, emphasis on conflict resolution as a civic value is evident in the Nigerian curriculum, where textbooks across multiple subjects consistently highlight peace, dialogue, and non-violence as essential foundations for democratic citizenship and national cohesion.
Nigerian textbooks place a strong normative emphasis on peace and non-violent conflict resolution, presenting these not only as desirable societal outcomes but also as practical skills for democratic citizenship. Christian Religious Studies textbooks articulate this principle explicitly, stating that “war is not good for any nation,” while History materials commemorate significant peace-building moments in Nigeria’s past. Across subjects, students are encouraged to acquire practical competencies, such as conflict resolution, cross-cultural communication, and cooperation, defined in one History text as “agreement … among a group or groups of people.”
The curriculum links these values directly to the attainment of peace, with multiple subjects guiding students to define and analyze concepts such as conflict, cooperation, and disagreement, while stressing the role of dialogue and communication in addressing disputes. Civic Education textbooks outline specific skills, such as dialogue, negotiation, and arbitration, as mechanisms for restoring peace, whereas New Government textbooks position problem-solving and peace as central learning objectives. Civic and Security Education textbooks extend this framework to contemporary issues, citing the Amnesty Project in the Niger Delta as a case study in peaceful conflict resolution mediated through multinational organizations. Similarly, History textbooks highlight Nigeria’s contributions to continental unity and peaceful diplomacy, referencing reconciliation initiatives in post-war contexts as models to be emulated.
Moreover, the curriculum seeks to normalize conflict as part of social life while steering students toward constructive responses. For instance, a Basic Social Studies textbook identifies dissatisfaction with government as a potential source of conflict but stresses the positive outcomes of non-violent approaches, such as the generation of new ideas and leadership reform. This mirrors the Ethiopian curriculum, which acknowledges the potential positive aspects of conflict, while ultimately returning to a strong emphasis on conflict resolution as the desired approach. By presenting conflict as both a challenge and an opportunity, these materials cultivate a mindset in which peace and reconciliation are practical values to be enacted in civic and political life.
Image: Basic Social Studies with Security Education, Grade 9, (2015) pp. 45-46.
South Sudan:
Sudan became independent in 1956, following years under British-Egyptian colonial rule. Similar to Nigeria, the country was Christian in the South, and predominantly Muslim in the North; both were administrated separately. The separation of these two areas has contributed to regional tensions post-independence, with two civil wars occurring in which Southern rebels fought against the Khartoum government’s efforts to impose Islamic law. The end of these wars occurred in the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement, leading to a referendum, whereby the South voted overwhelmingly for independence, establishing South Sudan as a state in 2011. Despite this, devastating civil wars have continued, with fragile peace agreements plastering over entrenched societal issues; South Sudan continues to face challenges in maintaining stability in the new nation. It is also home to a multiplicity of ethnicities, with more than 60 groups, the largest of which are the Dinka and Nuer, which have endured cycles of hostility between them.
Considering the nascence of this state, and its history fraught not only with colonialism but also significant levels of infighting, the South Sudanese education system has put forth efforts to entrench peace education among the next generation. South Sudanese textbooks place a strong normative emphasis on peace as both a civic value and a foundation for national development. The Grade 8 Social Studies textbook explicitly links peace with societal progress, encouraging students to view reconciliation and the pursuit of harmony as pathways to improving their communities. Peace is thus framed not only as a moral good but as a practical necessity for building a stable and prosperous society.
The Grade 10 Citizenship textbook broadens this perspective by situating violence within a wider regional and continental context. Students are prompted to recognize the harmful socioeconomic consequences of conflict for many African countries, with South Sudan presented as a case in point. By underscoring the devastating effects of violence on development and stability, the text explicitly calls for non-violence as the appropriate means of resolving disputes, thereby embedding peace into both personal ethics and national policy discourse.
Peace education is further reinforced in Grade 8 Social Studies, which instructs students to integrate anti-violence into daily life. Texts promote dialogue over violence and emphasize peacekeeping mechanisms designed to foster unity and coexistence. Students are encouraged to recognize the necessity of living peacefully with others and the possibilities of achieving reconciliation through non-violent approaches. Together, these materials reveal a deliberate curricular effort to instill in students the conviction that peaceful coexistence is attainable, desirable, and indispensable for the nation’s recovery and development.
Image: Social Studies, Grade 8, p.86
While the shared emphasis on non-violence and reconciliation underscores a common pedagogical goal between these three countries, each curriculum reflects its unique historical and political context. Ethiopia situates peace within its indigenous traditions and historical memory, acknowledging the defensive use of violence against foreign aggression but ultimately privileging reconciliation. Nigeria integrates peace education into a broader framework of democratic participation and civic responsibility, even allowing for the recognition of conflict’s constructive potential when resolved peacefully. South Sudan, by contrast, frames peace as an existential necessity, directly tied to development and survival in a post-conflict society, with violence depicted as wholly destructive. Unlike the Nigerian and Ethiopian systems, the South Sudanese education system does not include caveats that leave space for violence; instead, it unequivocally condemns it, reflecting a deliberate effort to help heal society from the deep scars of recent conflict. Taken together, these cases highlight the ways in which African states deploy education as a means of embedding conflict resolution into civic identity, each tailoring the message to its own historical experience, yet collectively affirming peace and conflict resolution.
https://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/22590111289_77f59ceb64_o-scaled-e1757418316548.jpg11472220Madeleine Ferrishttps://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/logo-IMPACT_SE.pngMadeleine Ferris2025-09-09 14:39:442025-09-25 11:02:41Conflict resolution in sub-Saharan Africa
As the new school year begins, countries across the Middle East have been undertaking ambitious educational reforms, reflecting wider social and political transformations. These reforms have not emerged in a vacuum. Curriculum changes have become a central tool in shaping national identity and preparing students for modern challenges.
Globally, curricula are continually revised and reformed in response to a range of motivations and pressures, each shaped by the unique political, social, and cultural contexts of individual countries. In the Middle East, these reforms can be broadly categorized into overhauls and modifications, in line with either progressive or regressive values. From the shock of 9/11 to the upheavals of the Arab Spring, the rise of ISIS, and ambitious national visions such as Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030, governments have increasingly recognized that textbooks are not only educational tools but also instruments for shaping national security, social cohesion, and international image.
Each method reveals something different about the country’s priorities and future trajectory. This can involve the revision of educational content, pedagogical approaches, and assessment methodologies to effectively address the dynamic needs of both society and students. These reforms are frequently initiated in response to societal transformations, technological advancements, and evolving perspectives in educational philosophy. Importantly, each country follows its own path to curricular reform, shaped by its unique political objectives. These aims are often reflected in the content being included or removed from curricula, offering valuable insight into national values and political direction; curriculum reform, in this sense, serves as a window into a country’s broader priorities and aspirations.
Within this regional landscape, the emergence of a new regime in post-Assad Syria places the country at a crossroads in redefining its identity, a process made visible through its education system. Will it align with progressive reform models that emphasize tolerance and modernization, or follow more regressive patterns marked by politicization and ideological indoctrination? Drawing on available data, this report examines the trajectory of Middle Eastern curriculum modifications to date, as compiled by IMPACT-se.
In the Middle East, curricular reform is frequently motivated by aspirations to modernize education systems, cultivate national identity and address socio-political challenges. These reforms manifest in content revision, ideological reorientation and the incorporation of new subjects. Textbook modifications span across comprehensive revisions to targeted edits, where problematic content is removed, revised or contextualized. IMPACT-se has generated extensive research into education systems, including countries within the Middle East, such as Egypt, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Syria. Curricular reform in these countries has occurred both in response to IMPACT-se’s findings and as part of broader, independent efforts aligned with national trends.
This piece is an analysis of the curricular changes in each of these countries, with specific reference to content identified by IMPACT-se, either as currently present in the curriculum or, in some cases, recently removed. This research often reflects the political trajectories of different countries and provides a lens through which their underlying value systems can be understood. Some countries, like Egypt and Saudi Arabia, have opted for a curriculum overhaul or specific modifications, re-establishing the curriculum along international educational standards, while others like Yemen and Jordan and the PA have enacted a curriculum overhaul or made specific changes which are more regressive.
These models of progressive or regressive overhaul and modification characterize overarching trends within the Middle East, and align with the political trajectories of each country. However, this piece will also shed light on the Syrian education system.[1]
Curriculum overhaul:
Since 2018, Egypt has been implementing a sweeping curriculum reform initiative aimed at aligning its education system with international benchmarks and instilling values of peace, tolerance, and coexistence.[2] This reform process entails the revision of textbooks spanning from kindergarten through the secondary level, with a systematic review and revision conducted for one grade level annually. The reformed textbooks have removed incitement to violence, extremism and hatred, and instead advocate for peace and tolerance principles, shared values, justice, equality and human rights.
Several specific changes to textbook content reflect a shift toward more inclusive values.[3] Antisemitic stereotypes have been removed and replaced with messages promoting tolerance and coexistence between Islam and Judaism, exemplified through the introduction of a new textbook subject titled “Values and Respect for the Other.” Passages that once glorified martyrdom in combat or praised terror attacks against Israelis have also been eliminated. However, problematic material continues to appear in unrevised textbooks for Grades 8–12, which have not yet undergone reform. These include negative portrayals of Israel, depicted as an illegitimate, colonialist entity, often omitted from maps, and narratives that present the liberation of Palestine as a religious duty. Additionally, some unrevised materials still express ambivalent or hostile views toward Jewish people, particularly within religious or historical discussions. Despite these ongoing concerns, meaningful progress can be seen in newly reformed textbooks and the selective removal of harmful content at higher grade levels, signaling genuine efforts to improve curricula, even in the absence of full-scale revisions.
For example, a Grade 3 Arabic Language textbook instructs students on the art of engaging in discussions and exchanging ideas, emphasizing the potential benefits of divergent opinions and the positive attributes of diversity. Additionally, a Christian Religious Education textbook discusses an event involving Jesus’ disciples in Jerusalem, underscoring the historical connection of Jewish people to Jerusalem. Conversely, some textbooks continue to include problematic content. A Grade 11 unrevised textbook, Egypt and Islamic Civilization, still portrays “the Jews” as a threat to the Prophet Muhammad and the early Muslim state, accusing them of using various tactics to undermine Islam, such as distorting the Prophet’s image, forming hostile alliances, and plotting assassinations. However, these textbooks are pre-reform, and so it is unsurprising that this content remains.
The below example features a Grade 5 Islamic Education textbook, which asks students to write a booklet on respecting others, including Jews, citing the Prophet and the Treaty of Medina. This excerpt exemplifies tolerance and coexistence between Islam and Judaism, replacing previous antisemitic examples, which had used Islamic stories to attack Jews.
Left image: Pre-reform – Antisemitic lesson on the Yom Kippur War.
Islamic Religious Education, Grade 5, Vol. 2, 2021-22, pp. 11-14 Right image: After reform – lesson underlining tolerance and coexistence between Islam and Judaism.
Islamic Religious Education, Grade 5, Vol. 1, 2024-25, pp. 62, 79
These findings reveal that Egypt is successfully attempting to align its curriculum with international standards, but is somewhat lacking in the realm of discussing Jews and martyrdom, which remains in higher unrevised grades. These changes reflect a broader effort to modernize the education system and align it more closely with standards of peace and tolerance. In doing so, they signal a shift in Egypt’s national trajectory. The curriculum serves as a clear indicator of the country’s aspirations and the direction in which it seeks to move.
Egypt is a clear example of progression in line with international standards of education, yet curricular changes may also be manifest in regressive reforms, such as in the Houthi school system. A curriculum reform was carried out by the Houthis, who revised their textbooks to include jihadist and violent content. The Houthi slogan including “Death to America – Death to Israel” is included in numerical exercises, and children are taught of the bliss that awaits martyrs in paradise.[4] This highlights that not all curricular reforms align with international standards or promote positive, peaceful values, and instead more regressive values are evident.[5] The Houthi case thus exemplifies how educational overhauls have the capacity to steer curricula away from universal educational values and toward radicalization and militarization.
Curriculum modifications:
A second method of curricular reform is demonstrated through specific modifications. Saudi Arabia has been engaged in curricular revision since the early 2000s. The revisions have been clearly reflective of the Saudi government’s ‘Vision 2030’ which emphasizes openness, entrepreneurial spirit and patriotism.[6] Reports on the Saudi curriculum indicate substantial improvement in textbooks, with progress towards a holistic educational approach. This is evidenced by the creation of a new school subject entitled ‘Critical Thinking,’ which indicates its movement towards a more tolerant and open-minded curriculum.
For example, accusations against Christians and Jews of intentionally distorting scripture have been removed, and maps previously labelling Israel as Palestine now omit country names, although the curriculum remains firmly dedicated to the Palestinian cause alone.[7] A Grade 12 Social Studies textbook, which taught that “Zionists” deliberately tried to burn down the Al-Aqsa Mosque, was removed in 2023, and a passage in a high school Social Studies textbook titled “The Attempt to Create the Zionist Entity” was changed to “The British Mandate for Palestine.” Further to this, references to the Protocols of the Elders of Zion and presentations of Jews using women and drugs have been removed.
Other changes are evident in attitudes towards atheism, where textbooks no longer teach students that the phenomenon is more common among non-Muslims due to their “pride and arrogance,” as was taught in 2022. The explanation that atheism may have occurred only in Muslim “souls that the devil has taken over” was also removed. However, students still learn that communication with atheists as well as psychological disorders may lead to atheism, which is presented as dangerous to society. Homophobia has been reduced in the curriculum, although some examples remain. Overall, these curricular changes reflect attitudes of religious inclusivity and tolerance, propounded by the ‘Vision 2030’ programme. Conversely, Grade 3 students are taught that house chores are primarily the responsibility of the mother, which is demonstrative of a more conservative attitude to gender roles at the heart of Saudi society, although some positive changes have occurred, including the removal of an example stating that women must obey their husbands.
Regressive Curriculum Changes
While Saudi Arabia serves as evidence of a more progressive form of modification, curricular changes in Jordan exemplify regressive modifications. In the wake of the ISIS era, Jordanian society was presented with an opportunity to reassess and reshape its core values. This moment led to the establishment of a governmental committee in 2015, which initiated significant textbook reforms. These revisions serve as a reflection of Jordan’s evolving national identity and offer insight into the country’s trajectory in the post-ISIS period.[8]
Close examination of the Jordanian curriculum reveals that while peace and tolerance principles were conceptually desirable as values, the reforms fell short of tangible improvement, particularly regarding its exclusion of Israel from principles of respect, and the lack of mention of Israeli-Jordanian peace treaties.[9] A Grade 10 Islamic Education textbook portrays Jews collectively as treacherous by merging separate incidents into a single narrative of “betrayal” against the Prophet Muhammad, including expulsions and punishments framed as justified. By tying these acts to the seizure of property and control of resources, it reinforces antisemitic stereotypes of Jews as both disloyal and economically threatening, shaping perceptions of them as perpetual enemies of Islam.
The curriculum’s general perspective on Israel is antagonistic, and concerning content remains, such as the glorification of martyrdom. For example, a newly introduced History textbook refers to the Israeli-Jordanian peace treaty in a negative light; rather than framing it as a pursuit of peace and reconciliation, the narrative reinforces hostility. The treaty is not celebrated as a historic achievement but cast as an unfortunate necessity — a decision portrayed as forced upon Jordan to curb Israeli expansionism and to reclaim the “stolen” waters of the Jordan River. In doing so, the text sustains the image of Israel as an aggressive expansionist state, undermining the very premise UNESCO standards of education, which promote peace making as a method to resolve conflict.
History of Jordan, Grade 11 (Academic Track), Vol. 2, 2024, pp. 37-38.
These instances of targeted removals and modifications across curricula demonstrate how some Middle Eastern countries have attempted to align their curricula with international standards, whereas others have introduced regressive content as part of reform efforts. Saudi Arabia’s modifications align with the trajectory of the Egyptian curriculum, as both aim to incorporate international values into their respective education systems, despite Saudi Arabia pursuing more selective and less holistic reforms, demonstrated through retaining gender stereotypes in the curriculum. It is clear that not all forms of curricular reform are inherently positive, as demonstrated by Jordan’s continued inclusion of antisemitic and violent content in its textbooks.
The Syrian trajectory:
Curricular overhaul and modification represent two primary forms of educational reform currently observed across the Middle East. With the emergence of a new regime in Syria, it will be important to monitor how the country’s educational landscape evolves. The following examples illustrate regressive ideas, comparable in their backward orientation to those seen in the Assad curriculum, though these examples introduce an Islamized element. It remains to be seen whether further reforms will align with the progressive or regressive models of overhaul or modification identified elsewhere in the region.
Thus far, the regime has placed heavy emphasis on changes to counteract the Assad regime’s influence on education.[10] Following nearly 14 years of conflict, the rise of Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) in Syria has led to a significant number of educational reforms in a document published by the new Minister of Education, Nadhir Al-Qadiri, reflecting a reshaping of Syrian society. The reforms include officially declared and undeclared directives to be incorporated into the curriculum: officially declared directives consist of replacing the official Syrian flag with the revolution’s flag, referring to the Ottoman Empire as a “regime” or “sultanate” instead of an “occupation,” and removing nationalistic (civic) studies. Undeclared directives consist of the removal of Assad-associated content, and the Islamization of the curriculum. These directives reflect the politicization of the curriculum in alignment with the new regime’s political agenda, most notably seen in the removal of content associated with the Assad era.[11]
Specifically, images of the Syrian flag in Mathematics and Chemistry textbooks have been replaced with that of the regime flag, and references to the “Ottoman occupation” have been replaced with the phrase “Ottoman regime” which is indicative of potential ties between Syria and Turkey. The curriculum reform also extends to the removal of historic and national figures, such as Abu Khalil al-Qabbani, Sulaiman al-Issa and Nazik al-Abid, from social studies textbooks. In addition, the definition of a martyr has been changed from one who dies defending the homeland, to one who dies to “raise God’s word,” indicating a religious addition to the curriculum, in accordance with Islamic values. This reflects a revolutionary regime shift and a corresponding paradigm change, marked by the deliberate removal of content related to the previous Assad regime. While many curricular modifications are politically motivated, this case represents an explicit and comprehensive overhaul of the former regime’s educational narrative.
Image: Syrian curriculum guidelines enforcing the replacement of the Assad regime’s flag with that of the new regime.
Although Minister Al-Qadiri claimed the curriculum revisions would be limited to correcting inaccuracies in Islamic Education, analysis reveals a far broader reform effort. The changes span multiple subjects and reflect HTS’s continued adherence to Islamist ideology, marked by the Islamification of content and the removal of Assad-era and Western ideas. These early revisions highlight the new regime’s ideological priorities and signal a wider political and educational shift in Syria. Political shifts are also reflected in the curriculum, for instance, the change in phrasing from ‘Ottoman occupation’ to ‘Ottoman regime,’ a subtle but deliberate adjustment that signals the potential for closer Syrian ties with Turkey.
There have already been targeted modifications within the Syrian curriculum aimed at removing content associated with the Assad regime. However, it remains unclear whether a comprehensive overhaul will follow once a new regime is more firmly established. Syria will be a key country to watch in this regard. As the example of the Houthis demonstrates, curriculum changes can be leveraged not only for constructive reform but also to entrench extremist ideologies, promote violence, and advance the political agendas of those in power.
Conclusion:
This piece has examined two distinct forms of educational reform across the Middle East: comprehensive curriculum overhauls and targeted content modifications. These approaches are evident in the evolving curricula of Egypt, Yemen, Jordan and Saudi Arabia.
Curriculum reform across the Middle East serves as a mirror reflecting each nation’s political trajectory, social priorities, and ideological commitments. Through the comparative analysis of overhaul and modification models, it becomes clear that educational reform is neither inherently progressive nor universally aligned with international standards. While countries like Egypt and Saudi Arabia demonstrate meaningful efforts to modernize curricula and promote inclusive values, cases such as Jordan and the Houthi-controlled system in Yemen illustrate how reform can also be used to reinforce intolerance, extremism, and politicized narratives.
Syria now stands at a pivotal moment. The removal of Assad-era content and early signals of ideological reorientation suggest that its educational system is being reshaped in the image of the new regime. However, it remains uncertain whether this transformation will align with progressive, internationally recognized educational values or mirror the regressive, radicalizing overhauls seen elsewhere. This curriculum warrants close scrutiny, not only to assess its alignment with global educational norms, but also to understand the broader political and ideological future Syria may be carving out through its classrooms. As the region continues to evolve, education remains both a battleground and a blueprint for the next generation.
https://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/Refugee_children_from_Syria_at_a_clinic_in_Ramtha_northern_Jordan_9613477263-scaled.jpg17072560Madeleine Ferrishttps://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/logo-IMPACT_SE.pngMadeleine Ferris2025-09-02 14:30:382025-09-07 09:35:02Middle Eastern Curriculum Reform: a Window into National Values
https://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/Iran.jpg9601280Madeleine Ferrishttps://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/logo-IMPACT_SE.pngMadeleine Ferris2025-06-17 13:44:322025-06-18 11:55:36Iran’s Radical Education and Its Implications for Conflict with Israel and Nuclear Talks
https://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/Syria.jpg6831024Madeleine Ferrishttps://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/logo-IMPACT_SE.pngMadeleine Ferris2025-05-11 14:56:062025-05-11 15:06:27Revolutionary change in Syria’s political system and its ripple effect on education
Poland’s political landscape has experienced significant changes in recent years. In the 2023 parliamentary elections, the opposition coalition, led by Donald Tusk’s Civic Coalition, secured a majority, ending the eight-year rule of the conservative Law and Justice (PiS) party. This transition marked a shift towards more liberal policies and a renewed emphasis on strengthening ties […]
https://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/PolandSchool.jpg6831024Madeleine Ferrishttps://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/logo-IMPACT_SE.pngMadeleine Ferris2025-03-09 11:53:112025-03-09 11:54:36Poland at the Crossroads: Political Shifts and Educational Reforms in a Changing Era
Egypt’s political landscape remains complex, shaped by a combination of domestic priorities and international influences. Under President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, the government has emphasized investment in education. However, political constraints and limited democratic space often challenge the implementation of reforms. The government faces significant challenges in modernizing its education system while addressing entrenched issues.
The Egyptian education system serves millions of students but struggles with outdated curricula. The curriculum often reflects traditional narratives and has been criticized for lacking inclusivity, global perspectives, and engagement with contemporary issues. Additionally, disparities in access to quality education persist, with rural and underprivileged communities disproportionately affected.
Educational reform:
Egypt’s reform efforts aim to modernize education through structural adjustments, curriculum updates, and digital integration to better prepare students for global challenges. The Ministry of Education has introduced initiatives like the Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB), a digital library launched in 2016, providing free access to textbooks and interactive learning materials.
However, reform of curriculum content has progressed well, albeit at a slightly slower rate. There has been a significant amount of successful reform for younger grades, where the government aims to foster critical thinking and innovation with topics like entrepreneurship, civic education, and environmental awareness, though conservative perspectives on LGBTQ issues persist
Content for older students still struggles with biases, including antisemitic stereotypes and anti-Israel rhetoric. Progress remains uneven, and deeper curriculum reforms are needed to address these entrenched issues effectively.
Opportunities for the future:
In light of the near-annual reforms in Egypt, there remains an opportunity for curricula to continue to be shaped in accordance with international values of peace and tolerance. A trajectory which implements ongoing textbook reform to address biases is essential towards creating an inclusive and forward-looking education system. Ultimately, this would help Egypt prepare its students to thrive in a globalized and interconnected world.
https://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/17566762454_f97f524fe9_o-scaled.jpg17072560Madeleine Ferrishttps://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/logo-IMPACT_SE.pngMadeleine Ferris2025-02-18 11:10:312025-02-18 14:11:42Egypt’s Ongoing Reforms: A Catalyst for Change, But More to Achieve
South Korea’s plan to introduce AI-powered digital textbooks in schools has sparked concerns about children’s overexposure to digital devices and potential misinformation. While the government aims to shift to more innovative, personalized education using AI, critics argue that the rollout has not addressed potential negative effects. Despite these concerns, many teachers support the initiative, though some parents fear it could hinder students’ brain development and problem-solving skills. Complete ArticleHERE.
https://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/South-Koreas-plan-for-AI-textbooks-hit-by-backlash-from-parents.png4701214Layla Jaffehttps://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/logo-IMPACT_SE.pngLayla Jaffe2024-10-10 14:06:462025-02-18 14:10:59South Korea’s plan for AI textbooks hit by backlash
From Classroom to Conflict: Iranian Textbooks and the Ideological Roots of the US-Iran-Israel War
/by Dan KoskyAgainst the backdrop of the ongoing US–Israel–Iran war, IMPACT-se examines how Iran’s national curriculum and school textbooks provide a lens into the threat the regime poses not only to the US, Israel, and the West, but also to regional actors across the Middle East and to its own civilian population.
The analysis shows how Iran’s education system advances the regime’s Khomeinist ideology, presenting nuclear dominance and the glorification of jihadist leaders as central to its national and religious identity.
By analyzing curriculum content and educational messaging, the article raises urgent questions about how state education furthers the regime’s intentions and what this may mean for the long-term stability of the Middle East.
Please find the paper here.
When Education Diverges from Law: LGBTQ Narratives in Jordanian and Egyptian Textbooks
/by Madeleine FerrisThis report examines how Jordanian and Egyptian school textbooks address homosexuality and gender non-conformity. Through analysis of religious and language curricula, it shows how textbook narratives often reflect prevailing social and religious norms rather than state law, highlighting the role of education in transmitting societal attitudes.
Please find the paper here.
UAE: A Unique Path for Teaching Tolerance
/by Madeleine FerrisThis paper by Matan Perchikov illustrates how the UAE curricula mobilize both Arab cultural and local national heritage, as well as Islamic religious tradition, to reinforce messages of peace and tolerance. In particular, the paper highlights the importance of introducing Moral Education as a distinct subject and the pedagogic approach of Islamic Education textbooks. By drawing simultaneously on religious textual authority and national cultural identity, the curricula present tolerance not as imported or externally imposed standard, but as an organic and deeply rooted value in Emirati society.
Please find the paper here.
Conflict resolution in sub-Saharan Africa
/by Madeleine FerrisAccording to UNESCO-derived standards of education, one critical element in assessing a curriculum is the presentation of peace and conflict resolution as a value in education. The overall aim of these standards is to create a more tolerant environment for students worldwide, where they learn the values of peace, respect, tolerance, and democratic principles. Conflict resolution is a value that fully embodies the broader principles of peace and tolerance promoted within the educational system, and thus provides an especially useful lens through which to assess sub-Saharan African curricula. Shaped by histories of colonialism and inter-ethnic conflict, Ethiopia, Nigeria, and South Sudan have each gone to considerable lengths to embed the values of peace and reconciliation in their educational frameworks. As a result, conflict resolution serves as a particularly meaningful perspective from which to evaluate how these curricula seek to cultivate tolerance and stability.
Across African curricula, the teaching of conflict resolution as a civic and moral value emerges as a recurring theme, particularly in Ethiopia, Nigeria, and South Sudan. In all three contexts, peace is presented as a practical skill set, integral to democratic participation, social stability, and national development. Textbooks consistently emphasize non-violent approaches such as dialogue, negotiation, reconciliation, and cooperation, while condemning violence as socially and economically destructive. Moreover, peace education is embedded across multiple disciplines, demonstrating a systematic curricular effort to cultivate peaceful coexistence as a shared societal value. This broad consensus suggests that, despite differing national trajectories and histories, these countries view conflict resolution as essential for nurturing responsible citizens and ensuring long-term stability.
Ethiopia:
Ethiopia is one of the world’s oldest Christian nations, with the religion enforced by the monarchy until the twentieth century. Ethiopia is home to over 80 ethnic groups, the largest being Oromo and Amhara, followed by Tigray, Somali, and Sidama. While this diversity is reflected in the country’s ethnic federal system, it has also fueled tensions. The country has a large Muslim presence, comprising roughly one third of the population, and has a long history of coexistence between the two religions, with some tension under more dogmatic national leaders. Ethiopia, one of the only African nations never colonized, was briefly occupied by Italy from 1936 to 1941 before Emperor Haile Selassie was restored. His modernization efforts and international leadership ended with his overthrow in 1974 by the Marxist Derg regime, whose rule brought repression, famine, and civil conflict until its fall in 1991. Due to its successful resistance and brief experience of occupation, Ethiopia became a symbol of independence and anti-colonial pride across Africa, later hosting the Organization of African Unity in Addis Ababa. Today, Ethiopia remains a major regional power but faces deep political and ethnic challenges.
Based on its history as an independent nation, fighting off bids for colonization, Ethiopian school textbooks consistently present conflict resolution as a central civic and democratic value, framing it as indispensable to both social stability and national cohesion. This is not simply discussed as a practical tool, but as a normative principle that students are encouraged to internalize. The Grade 11 History textbook, for example, draws on episodes of past conflict between Ethiopians, Christians, and Muslims to highlight the importance of resolving disputes peacefully, suggesting that such historical models provide lessons for contemporary society. Similarly, the Grade 12 Geography textbook situates conflict resolution within Ethiopia’s own cultural context, showcasing indigenous mechanisms that reduce inter-ethnic tensions through processes of reconciliation, forgiveness, and respect for elders. These examples emphasize that peaceful resolution is not only desirable, but deeply rooted in Ethiopian traditions, reinforcing its legitimacy as a civic value.
At the same time, the textbooks acknowledge the complexities of real-world conflict. The Grade 10 Citizenship textbook, for example, concedes that aggression may be necessary in the face of foreign invasion, before ultimately emphasizing the importance of peace. This nuance reflects the lasting imprint of Ethiopia’s historical encounters with colonial and external threats, demonstrating that while non-violence and reconciliation are taught as guiding principles, they are framed against a backdrop of national vulnerability. Overall, the curriculum deliberately cultivates conflict resolution as a moral and social value, embedding it within both Ethiopia’s historical memory and its indigenous traditions, and promoting it as a cornerstone of democratic citizenship.
Image: Citizenship, Grade 10, pp. 42, 98-99
Nigeria:
Before colonial rule, the territory of present-day Nigeria was home to diverse kingdoms and societies. In the late 19th century, Britain consolidated control of the country through conquest and treaties, formally creating the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria in 1914 by merging the northern and southern protectorates. This colonial unification bound together regions with very different histories, religions, and cultures, through indirect governance; they relied on Muslim emirs in the North and opened the South to Christian missionaries, introducing western education. As a result of this rule, the North became predominantly Muslim, while Christianity thrived in the South. Nigeria is also home to over 250 ethnic groups, the most dominant of which are the Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo, all of which have distinct ethnic identities tied to their respective places of dwelling. These regional divides and colonial legacy were inherited by Nigeria upon its independence in 1960, creating regional tensions evident today.
Given this legacy of colonialism, there is a strong emphasis on independence and anti-colonial narratives in Nigeria, combined with a desire to retain peace and stability. In a manner similar to Ethiopia, emphasis on conflict resolution as a civic value is evident in the Nigerian curriculum, where textbooks across multiple subjects consistently highlight peace, dialogue, and non-violence as essential foundations for democratic citizenship and national cohesion.
Nigerian textbooks place a strong normative emphasis on peace and non-violent conflict resolution, presenting these not only as desirable societal outcomes but also as practical skills for democratic citizenship. Christian Religious Studies textbooks articulate this principle explicitly, stating that “war is not good for any nation,” while History materials commemorate significant peace-building moments in Nigeria’s past. Across subjects, students are encouraged to acquire practical competencies, such as conflict resolution, cross-cultural communication, and cooperation, defined in one History text as “agreement … among a group or groups of people.”
The curriculum links these values directly to the attainment of peace, with multiple subjects guiding students to define and analyze concepts such as conflict, cooperation, and disagreement, while stressing the role of dialogue and communication in addressing disputes. Civic Education textbooks outline specific skills, such as dialogue, negotiation, and arbitration, as mechanisms for restoring peace, whereas New Government textbooks position problem-solving and peace as central learning objectives. Civic and Security Education textbooks extend this framework to contemporary issues, citing the Amnesty Project in the Niger Delta as a case study in peaceful conflict resolution mediated through multinational organizations. Similarly, History textbooks highlight Nigeria’s contributions to continental unity and peaceful diplomacy, referencing reconciliation initiatives in post-war contexts as models to be emulated.
Moreover, the curriculum seeks to normalize conflict as part of social life while steering students toward constructive responses. For instance, a Basic Social Studies textbook identifies dissatisfaction with government as a potential source of conflict but stresses the positive outcomes of non-violent approaches, such as the generation of new ideas and leadership reform. This mirrors the Ethiopian curriculum, which acknowledges the potential positive aspects of conflict, while ultimately returning to a strong emphasis on conflict resolution as the desired approach. By presenting conflict as both a challenge and an opportunity, these materials cultivate a mindset in which peace and reconciliation are practical values to be enacted in civic and political life.
Image: Basic Social Studies with Security Education, Grade 9, (2015) pp. 45-46.
South Sudan:
Sudan became independent in 1956, following years under British-Egyptian colonial rule. Similar to Nigeria, the country was Christian in the South, and predominantly Muslim in the North; both were administrated separately. The separation of these two areas has contributed to regional tensions post-independence, with two civil wars occurring in which Southern rebels fought against the Khartoum government’s efforts to impose Islamic law. The end of these wars occurred in the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement, leading to a referendum, whereby the South voted overwhelmingly for independence, establishing South Sudan as a state in 2011. Despite this, devastating civil wars have continued, with fragile peace agreements plastering over entrenched societal issues; South Sudan continues to face challenges in maintaining stability in the new nation. It is also home to a multiplicity of ethnicities, with more than 60 groups, the largest of which are the Dinka and Nuer, which have endured cycles of hostility between them.
Considering the nascence of this state, and its history fraught not only with colonialism but also significant levels of infighting, the South Sudanese education system has put forth efforts to entrench peace education among the next generation. South Sudanese textbooks place a strong normative emphasis on peace as both a civic value and a foundation for national development. The Grade 8 Social Studies textbook explicitly links peace with societal progress, encouraging students to view reconciliation and the pursuit of harmony as pathways to improving their communities. Peace is thus framed not only as a moral good but as a practical necessity for building a stable and prosperous society.
The Grade 10 Citizenship textbook broadens this perspective by situating violence within a wider regional and continental context. Students are prompted to recognize the harmful socioeconomic consequences of conflict for many African countries, with South Sudan presented as a case in point. By underscoring the devastating effects of violence on development and stability, the text explicitly calls for non-violence as the appropriate means of resolving disputes, thereby embedding peace into both personal ethics and national policy discourse.
Peace education is further reinforced in Grade 8 Social Studies, which instructs students to integrate anti-violence into daily life. Texts promote dialogue over violence and emphasize peacekeeping mechanisms designed to foster unity and coexistence. Students are encouraged to recognize the necessity of living peacefully with others and the possibilities of achieving reconciliation through non-violent approaches. Together, these materials reveal a deliberate curricular effort to instill in students the conviction that peaceful coexistence is attainable, desirable, and indispensable for the nation’s recovery and development.
Image: Social Studies, Grade 8, p.86
While the shared emphasis on non-violence and reconciliation underscores a common pedagogical goal between these three countries, each curriculum reflects its unique historical and political context. Ethiopia situates peace within its indigenous traditions and historical memory, acknowledging the defensive use of violence against foreign aggression but ultimately privileging reconciliation. Nigeria integrates peace education into a broader framework of democratic participation and civic responsibility, even allowing for the recognition of conflict’s constructive potential when resolved peacefully. South Sudan, by contrast, frames peace as an existential necessity, directly tied to development and survival in a post-conflict society, with violence depicted as wholly destructive. Unlike the Nigerian and Ethiopian systems, the South Sudanese education system does not include caveats that leave space for violence; instead, it unequivocally condemns it, reflecting a deliberate effort to help heal society from the deep scars of recent conflict. Taken together, these cases highlight the ways in which African states deploy education as a means of embedding conflict resolution into civic identity, each tailoring the message to its own historical experience, yet collectively affirming peace and conflict resolution.
Middle Eastern Curriculum Reform: a Window into National Values
/by Madeleine FerrisAs the new school year begins, countries across the Middle East have been undertaking ambitious educational reforms, reflecting wider social and political transformations. These reforms have not emerged in a vacuum. Curriculum changes have become a central tool in shaping national identity and preparing students for modern challenges.
Globally, curricula are continually revised and reformed in response to a range of motivations and pressures, each shaped by the unique political, social, and cultural contexts of individual countries. In the Middle East, these reforms can be broadly categorized into overhauls and modifications, in line with either progressive or regressive values. From the shock of 9/11 to the upheavals of the Arab Spring, the rise of ISIS, and ambitious national visions such as Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030, governments have increasingly recognized that textbooks are not only educational tools but also instruments for shaping national security, social cohesion, and international image.
Each method reveals something different about the country’s priorities and future trajectory. This can involve the revision of educational content, pedagogical approaches, and assessment methodologies to effectively address the dynamic needs of both society and students. These reforms are frequently initiated in response to societal transformations, technological advancements, and evolving perspectives in educational philosophy. Importantly, each country follows its own path to curricular reform, shaped by its unique political objectives. These aims are often reflected in the content being included or removed from curricula, offering valuable insight into national values and political direction; curriculum reform, in this sense, serves as a window into a country’s broader priorities and aspirations.
Within this regional landscape, the emergence of a new regime in post-Assad Syria places the country at a crossroads in redefining its identity, a process made visible through its education system. Will it align with progressive reform models that emphasize tolerance and modernization, or follow more regressive patterns marked by politicization and ideological indoctrination? Drawing on available data, this report examines the trajectory of Middle Eastern curriculum modifications to date, as compiled by IMPACT-se.
In the Middle East, curricular reform is frequently motivated by aspirations to modernize education systems, cultivate national identity and address socio-political challenges. These reforms manifest in content revision, ideological reorientation and the incorporation of new subjects. Textbook modifications span across comprehensive revisions to targeted edits, where problematic content is removed, revised or contextualized. IMPACT-se has generated extensive research into education systems, including countries within the Middle East, such as Egypt, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Syria. Curricular reform in these countries has occurred both in response to IMPACT-se’s findings and as part of broader, independent efforts aligned with national trends.
This piece is an analysis of the curricular changes in each of these countries, with specific reference to content identified by IMPACT-se, either as currently present in the curriculum or, in some cases, recently removed. This research often reflects the political trajectories of different countries and provides a lens through which their underlying value systems can be understood. Some countries, like Egypt and Saudi Arabia, have opted for a curriculum overhaul or specific modifications, re-establishing the curriculum along international educational standards, while others like Yemen and Jordan and the PA have enacted a curriculum overhaul or made specific changes which are more regressive.
These models of progressive or regressive overhaul and modification characterize overarching trends within the Middle East, and align with the political trajectories of each country. However, this piece will also shed light on the Syrian education system.[1]
Curriculum overhaul:
Since 2018, Egypt has been implementing a sweeping curriculum reform initiative aimed at aligning its education system with international benchmarks and instilling values of peace, tolerance, and coexistence.[2] This reform process entails the revision of textbooks spanning from kindergarten through the secondary level, with a systematic review and revision conducted for one grade level annually. The reformed textbooks have removed incitement to violence, extremism and hatred, and instead advocate for peace and tolerance principles, shared values, justice, equality and human rights.
Several specific changes to textbook content reflect a shift toward more inclusive values.[3] Antisemitic stereotypes have been removed and replaced with messages promoting tolerance and coexistence between Islam and Judaism, exemplified through the introduction of a new textbook subject titled “Values and Respect for the Other.” Passages that once glorified martyrdom in combat or praised terror attacks against Israelis have also been eliminated. However, problematic material continues to appear in unrevised textbooks for Grades 8–12, which have not yet undergone reform. These include negative portrayals of Israel, depicted as an illegitimate, colonialist entity, often omitted from maps, and narratives that present the liberation of Palestine as a religious duty. Additionally, some unrevised materials still express ambivalent or hostile views toward Jewish people, particularly within religious or historical discussions. Despite these ongoing concerns, meaningful progress can be seen in newly reformed textbooks and the selective removal of harmful content at higher grade levels, signaling genuine efforts to improve curricula, even in the absence of full-scale revisions.
For example, a Grade 3 Arabic Language textbook instructs students on the art of engaging in discussions and exchanging ideas, emphasizing the potential benefits of divergent opinions and the positive attributes of diversity. Additionally, a Christian Religious Education textbook discusses an event involving Jesus’ disciples in Jerusalem, underscoring the historical connection of Jewish people to Jerusalem. Conversely, some textbooks continue to include problematic content. A Grade 11 unrevised textbook, Egypt and Islamic Civilization, still portrays “the Jews” as a threat to the Prophet Muhammad and the early Muslim state, accusing them of using various tactics to undermine Islam, such as distorting the Prophet’s image, forming hostile alliances, and plotting assassinations. However, these textbooks are pre-reform, and so it is unsurprising that this content remains.
The below example features a Grade 5 Islamic Education textbook, which asks students to write a booklet on respecting others, including Jews, citing the Prophet and the Treaty of Medina. This excerpt exemplifies tolerance and coexistence between Islam and Judaism, replacing previous antisemitic examples, which had used Islamic stories to attack Jews.
Left image: Pre-reform – Antisemitic lesson on the Yom Kippur War.
Islamic Religious Education, Grade 5, Vol. 2, 2021-22, pp. 11-14
Right image: After reform – lesson underlining tolerance and coexistence between Islam and Judaism.
Islamic Religious Education, Grade 5, Vol. 1, 2024-25, pp. 62, 79
These findings reveal that Egypt is successfully attempting to align its curriculum with international standards, but is somewhat lacking in the realm of discussing Jews and martyrdom, which remains in higher unrevised grades. These changes reflect a broader effort to modernize the education system and align it more closely with standards of peace and tolerance. In doing so, they signal a shift in Egypt’s national trajectory. The curriculum serves as a clear indicator of the country’s aspirations and the direction in which it seeks to move.
Egypt is a clear example of progression in line with international standards of education, yet curricular changes may also be manifest in regressive reforms, such as in the Houthi school system. A curriculum reform was carried out by the Houthis, who revised their textbooks to include jihadist and violent content. The Houthi slogan including “Death to America – Death to Israel” is included in numerical exercises, and children are taught of the bliss that awaits martyrs in paradise.[4] This highlights that not all curricular reforms align with international standards or promote positive, peaceful values, and instead more regressive values are evident.[5] The Houthi case thus exemplifies how educational overhauls have the capacity to steer curricula away from universal educational values and toward radicalization and militarization.
Curriculum modifications:
A second method of curricular reform is demonstrated through specific modifications. Saudi Arabia has been engaged in curricular revision since the early 2000s. The revisions have been clearly reflective of the Saudi government’s ‘Vision 2030’ which emphasizes openness, entrepreneurial spirit and patriotism.[6] Reports on the Saudi curriculum indicate substantial improvement in textbooks, with progress towards a holistic educational approach. This is evidenced by the creation of a new school subject entitled ‘Critical Thinking,’ which indicates its movement towards a more tolerant and open-minded curriculum.
For example, accusations against Christians and Jews of intentionally distorting scripture have been removed, and maps previously labelling Israel as Palestine now omit country names, although the curriculum remains firmly dedicated to the Palestinian cause alone.[7] A Grade 12 Social Studies textbook, which taught that “Zionists” deliberately tried to burn down the Al-Aqsa Mosque, was removed in 2023, and a passage in a high school Social Studies textbook titled “The Attempt to Create the Zionist Entity” was changed to “The British Mandate for Palestine.” Further to this, references to the Protocols of the Elders of Zion and presentations of Jews using women and drugs have been removed.
Other changes are evident in attitudes towards atheism, where textbooks no longer teach students that the phenomenon is more common among non-Muslims due to their “pride and arrogance,” as was taught in 2022. The explanation that atheism may have occurred only in Muslim “souls that the devil has taken over” was also removed. However, students still learn that communication with atheists as well as psychological disorders may lead to atheism, which is presented as dangerous to society. Homophobia has been reduced in the curriculum, although some examples remain. Overall, these curricular changes reflect attitudes of religious inclusivity and tolerance, propounded by the ‘Vision 2030’ programme. Conversely, Grade 3 students are taught that house chores are primarily the responsibility of the mother, which is demonstrative of a more conservative attitude to gender roles at the heart of Saudi society, although some positive changes have occurred, including the removal of an example stating that women must obey their husbands.
Regressive Curriculum Changes
While Saudi Arabia serves as evidence of a more progressive form of modification, curricular changes in Jordan exemplify regressive modifications. In the wake of the ISIS era, Jordanian society was presented with an opportunity to reassess and reshape its core values. This moment led to the establishment of a governmental committee in 2015, which initiated significant textbook reforms. These revisions serve as a reflection of Jordan’s evolving national identity and offer insight into the country’s trajectory in the post-ISIS period.[8]
Close examination of the Jordanian curriculum reveals that while peace and tolerance principles were conceptually desirable as values, the reforms fell short of tangible improvement, particularly regarding its exclusion of Israel from principles of respect, and the lack of mention of Israeli-Jordanian peace treaties.[9] A Grade 10 Islamic Education textbook portrays Jews collectively as treacherous by merging separate incidents into a single narrative of “betrayal” against the Prophet Muhammad, including expulsions and punishments framed as justified. By tying these acts to the seizure of property and control of resources, it reinforces antisemitic stereotypes of Jews as both disloyal and economically threatening, shaping perceptions of them as perpetual enemies of Islam.
The curriculum’s general perspective on Israel is antagonistic, and concerning content remains, such as the glorification of martyrdom. For example, a newly introduced History textbook refers to the Israeli-Jordanian peace treaty in a negative light; rather than framing it as a pursuit of peace and reconciliation, the narrative reinforces hostility. The treaty is not celebrated as a historic achievement but cast as an unfortunate necessity — a decision portrayed as forced upon Jordan to curb Israeli expansionism and to reclaim the “stolen” waters of the Jordan River. In doing so, the text sustains the image of Israel as an aggressive expansionist state, undermining the very premise UNESCO standards of education, which promote peace making as a method to resolve conflict.
History of Jordan, Grade 11 (Academic Track), Vol. 2, 2024, pp. 37-38.
These instances of targeted removals and modifications across curricula demonstrate how some Middle Eastern countries have attempted to align their curricula with international standards, whereas others have introduced regressive content as part of reform efforts. Saudi Arabia’s modifications align with the trajectory of the Egyptian curriculum, as both aim to incorporate international values into their respective education systems, despite Saudi Arabia pursuing more selective and less holistic reforms, demonstrated through retaining gender stereotypes in the curriculum. It is clear that not all forms of curricular reform are inherently positive, as demonstrated by Jordan’s continued inclusion of antisemitic and violent content in its textbooks.
The Syrian trajectory:
Curricular overhaul and modification represent two primary forms of educational reform currently observed across the Middle East. With the emergence of a new regime in Syria, it will be important to monitor how the country’s educational landscape evolves. The following examples illustrate regressive ideas, comparable in their backward orientation to those seen in the Assad curriculum, though these examples introduce an Islamized element. It remains to be seen whether further reforms will align with the progressive or regressive models of overhaul or modification identified elsewhere in the region.
Thus far, the regime has placed heavy emphasis on changes to counteract the Assad regime’s influence on education.[10] Following nearly 14 years of conflict, the rise of Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) in Syria has led to a significant number of educational reforms in a document published by the new Minister of Education, Nadhir Al-Qadiri, reflecting a reshaping of Syrian society. The reforms include officially declared and undeclared directives to be incorporated into the curriculum: officially declared directives consist of replacing the official Syrian flag with the revolution’s flag, referring to the Ottoman Empire as a “regime” or “sultanate” instead of an “occupation,” and removing nationalistic (civic) studies. Undeclared directives consist of the removal of Assad-associated content, and the Islamization of the curriculum. These directives reflect the politicization of the curriculum in alignment with the new regime’s political agenda, most notably seen in the removal of content associated with the Assad era.[11]
Specifically, images of the Syrian flag in Mathematics and Chemistry textbooks have been replaced with that of the regime flag, and references to the “Ottoman occupation” have been replaced with the phrase “Ottoman regime” which is indicative of potential ties between Syria and Turkey. The curriculum reform also extends to the removal of historic and national figures, such as Abu Khalil al-Qabbani, Sulaiman al-Issa and Nazik al-Abid, from social studies textbooks. In addition, the definition of a martyr has been changed from one who dies defending the homeland, to one who dies to “raise God’s word,” indicating a religious addition to the curriculum, in accordance with Islamic values. This reflects a revolutionary regime shift and a corresponding paradigm change, marked by the deliberate removal of content related to the previous Assad regime. While many curricular modifications are politically motivated, this case represents an explicit and comprehensive overhaul of the former regime’s educational narrative.
Image: Syrian curriculum guidelines enforcing the replacement of the Assad regime’s flag with that of the new regime.
Although Minister Al-Qadiri claimed the curriculum revisions would be limited to correcting inaccuracies in Islamic Education, analysis reveals a far broader reform effort. The changes span multiple subjects and reflect HTS’s continued adherence to Islamist ideology, marked by the Islamification of content and the removal of Assad-era and Western ideas. These early revisions highlight the new regime’s ideological priorities and signal a wider political and educational shift in Syria. Political shifts are also reflected in the curriculum, for instance, the change in phrasing from ‘Ottoman occupation’ to ‘Ottoman regime,’ a subtle but deliberate adjustment that signals the potential for closer Syrian ties with Turkey.
There have already been targeted modifications within the Syrian curriculum aimed at removing content associated with the Assad regime. However, it remains unclear whether a comprehensive overhaul will follow once a new regime is more firmly established. Syria will be a key country to watch in this regard. As the example of the Houthis demonstrates, curriculum changes can be leveraged not only for constructive reform but also to entrench extremist ideologies, promote violence, and advance the political agendas of those in power.
Conclusion:
This piece has examined two distinct forms of educational reform across the Middle East: comprehensive curriculum overhauls and targeted content modifications. These approaches are evident in the evolving curricula of Egypt, Yemen, Jordan and Saudi Arabia.
Curriculum reform across the Middle East serves as a mirror reflecting each nation’s political trajectory, social priorities, and ideological commitments. Through the comparative analysis of overhaul and modification models, it becomes clear that educational reform is neither inherently progressive nor universally aligned with international standards. While countries like Egypt and Saudi Arabia demonstrate meaningful efforts to modernize curricula and promote inclusive values, cases such as Jordan and the Houthi-controlled system in Yemen illustrate how reform can also be used to reinforce intolerance, extremism, and politicized narratives.
Syria now stands at a pivotal moment. The removal of Assad-era content and early signals of ideological reorientation suggest that its educational system is being reshaped in the image of the new regime. However, it remains uncertain whether this transformation will align with progressive, internationally recognized educational values or mirror the regressive, radicalizing overhauls seen elsewhere. This curriculum warrants close scrutiny, not only to assess its alignment with global educational norms, but also to understand the broader political and ideological future Syria may be carving out through its classrooms. As the region continues to evolve, education remains both a battleground and a blueprint for the next generation.
[1] https://carnegieendowment.org/middle-east/diwan/2024/12/bashar-al-assad-of-syria-has-been-ousted-from-power?lang=en¢er=middle-east
[2] https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/report-finds-progress-in-egypts-education-reform-with-students-taught-peace-tolerance/
[3] https://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/Review-of-Changes-and-Remaining-Problematic-Content-in-EgyptianTextbooks.pdf
[4] https://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/Review-of-Houthi-Educational-Materials-in-Yemen_2015-19.pdf
[5] https://www.yemenpolicy.org/look-out-your-son-could-be-the-next-martyr-changes-to-north-yemens-school-textbooks/
[6] https://www.vision2030.gov.sa/en
[7] https://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/Updated-Review-Saudi-Textbooks-2023-24.pdf
[8] https://thearabweekly.com/jordanians-divided-educational-reform
[9] https://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/Jordanian-Education-Report.pdf
[10] https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c1ln12056ppo
[11] https://archive.impact-se.org/wp-content/uploads/A-Review-of-Hayat-Tahrir-al-Shams-Intended-Changes-to-the-Syrian-Curriculum.pdf
Iran’s Radical Education and Its Implications for Conflict with Israel and Nuclear Talks
/by Madeleine FerrisRevolutionary change in Syria’s political system and its ripple effect on education
/by Madeleine FerrisPoland at the Crossroads: Political Shifts and Educational Reforms in a Changing Era
/by Madeleine FerrisPoland’s political landscape has experienced significant changes in recent years. In the 2023 parliamentary elections, the opposition coalition, led by Donald Tusk’s Civic Coalition, secured a majority, ending the eight-year rule of the conservative Law and Justice (PiS) party. This transition marked a shift towards more liberal policies and a renewed emphasis on strengthening ties […]
Egypt’s Ongoing Reforms: A Catalyst for Change, But More to Achieve
/by Madeleine FerrisEgypt’s political landscape remains complex, shaped by a combination of domestic priorities and international influences. Under President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, the government has emphasized investment in education. However, political constraints and limited democratic space often challenge the implementation of reforms. The government faces significant challenges in modernizing its education system while addressing entrenched issues.
The Egyptian education system serves millions of students but struggles with outdated curricula. The curriculum often reflects traditional narratives and has been criticized for lacking inclusivity, global perspectives, and engagement with contemporary issues. Additionally, disparities in access to quality education persist, with rural and underprivileged communities disproportionately affected.
Educational reform:
Egypt’s reform efforts aim to modernize education through structural adjustments, curriculum updates, and digital integration to better prepare students for global challenges. The Ministry of Education has introduced initiatives like the Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB), a digital library launched in 2016, providing free access to textbooks and interactive learning materials.
However, reform of curriculum content has progressed well, albeit at a slightly slower rate. There has been a significant amount of successful reform for younger grades, where the government aims to foster critical thinking and innovation with topics like entrepreneurship, civic education, and environmental awareness, though conservative perspectives on LGBTQ issues persist
Content for older students still struggles with biases, including antisemitic stereotypes and anti-Israel rhetoric. Progress remains uneven, and deeper curriculum reforms are needed to address these entrenched issues effectively.
Opportunities for the future:
In light of the near-annual reforms in Egypt, there remains an opportunity for curricula to continue to be shaped in accordance with international values of peace and tolerance. A trajectory which implements ongoing textbook reform to address biases is essential towards creating an inclusive and forward-looking education system. Ultimately, this would help Egypt prepare its students to thrive in a globalized and interconnected world.
South Korea’s plan for AI textbooks hit by backlash
/by Layla JaffeSouth Korea’s plan to introduce AI-powered digital textbooks in schools has sparked concerns about children’s overexposure to digital devices and potential misinformation. While the government aims to shift to more innovative, personalized education using AI, critics argue that the rollout has not addressed potential negative effects. Despite these concerns, many teachers support the initiative, though some parents fear it could hinder students’ brain development and problem-solving skills. Complete Article HERE.